Athanasius: Defender of Orthodoxy and Early Church Shaper

Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this article belong to the author and do not necessarily match my own. - Dr. Bart D. Ehrman

Christianity began as a small sect within Judaism. As the new movement spread, key figures emerged to defend its core beliefs and guide its growth. One of the most influential of these was bishop Athanasius of Alexandria whose leadership left an indelible mark on the early Church.

Even though the new movement didn’t exclusively draw members from society’s lower ranks, before Emperor Constantine’s conversion in 312 C.E., the wealthy and elite largely kept their distance from Christianity. 

Yet, as Peter Brown notes, by the middle of the 4th century, the wealthy and powerful were “waiting in the wings, as it were, to make their presence felt in the churches.” This era also marked the rise of influential bishops and leaders, with St. Athanasius standing out as one of the most important of them all.

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Therefore, this article will explore Athanasius’ life, from his early years to his rise as bishop of Alexandria. We’ll examine his most significant writings, including The Life of St. Anthony and his theological defenses, which remain central to Christian thought. 

Finally, we’ll consider his historical significance within the broader Christian tradition and why his influence continues to be felt today. 

However, before we step into the world of 4th century Egypt and explore Athanasius' life and lasting influence, you may want to consider diving into one of the most debated topics in early Christianity with Dr. Bart D. Ehrman’s course “Paul and Jesus: The Great Divide”.

This amazing course explores whether Paul and Jesus shared the same religious vision or if Paul's teachings marked a significant departure, shaping Christianity into what it became! 

Athanasius: Biography

Who is Athanasius? Athanasius of Alexandria, born around 295 C.E., emerged from humble beginnings in one of the most vibrant and tumultuous cities of the Roman Empire. 

Alexandria was a bustling metropolis, a hub of culture, learning, and religious diversity. As Khaled Anatolios notes, the city’s status as both a cultural and administrative center of Egypt made it the perfect backdrop for the future bishop’s influential career. 

While much of Athanasius’ early life remains shrouded in mystery, it’s generally agreed that he grew up in a non-Christian family before converting to Christianity, a move that would shape not only his life but the course of the religion’s history. 

After his conversion, Athanasius caught the attention of Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, who became his mentor and later ordained him as a deacon. Athanasius was barely 30 years old when he was thrust into the spotlight by becoming the bishop of Alexandria in 328 C.E.

Peter Gemeinhardt notes that a synodal letter sent 10 years later from Alexandria described the decisive factor in his election as bishop: The church community had perceived Athanasius as “zealous, devout, Christian, one of the ascetics, and a true bishop.” (my translation)

His appointment followed the death of his mentor, Bishop Alexander, but, as Timothy Barnes explains in his study Athanasius and Constantius, Athanasius’ rise to power wasn’t without controversy. 

His election was challenged by factions within the Egyptian church, particularly the Melitians, who had been embroiled in schismatic tensions for years. 

Yet, despite these early challenges, Athanasius quickly made a name for himself as a staunch defender of Nicene orthodoxy, particularly against the rising tide of Arianism, which assumed the subordinate position of Jesus to God the Father. 

As it turns out, Athanasius’ unyielding stance against Arianism would define much of his career — and his many exiles. Throughout his nearly five-decade tenure as bishop, Athanasius spent at least 17 years in exile, scattered across five separate periods. 

These exiles were largely the result of his opposition to Arianism, which several Roman emperors, including Constantius II (reigned 337–361 C.E.), the middle son of Constantine the Great, supported.

In other words, Athanasius' determination to uphold Nicene's orthodoxy earned him both powerful enemies and devoted allies, particularly among Egypt’s growing monastic communities. 

One example that illustrates his unwavering battle for what Athanasius perceived as “orthodoxy” pertains to his actions in the spring of 362 C.E. He summoned a council of bishops in Alexandria, which the church historian Rufinus refers to as the “Synod of the Confessors.”

In his study Athanasius der Große. Der unbeugsame Heilige (Athanasius the Great: The Unyielding Saint), German historian Manfred Clauss explains the purpose and the outcome of this synod:

Clauss notes that, from Athanasius' perspective, the “fallen” bishops were divided into several groups. Those who had voluntarily joined the Arians were removed from the clergy, while those who had renounced the Nicene faith under state pressure but were now willing to reaffirm it were forgiven, as this affected most of the Alexandrian clergy.

But it wasn’t just his actions at the synod that showcased his influence; Athanasius also used his literary talents to further solidify his authority and theological stance.

As a master of theological rhetoric, Athanasius penned numerous works during these years, including his famous Life of St. Anthony. His writings also serve as a testament to his resilience, using his time in exile to craft arguments that would strengthen his position once he returned to Alexandria.

Despite the many political and theological storms he weathered, Athanasius eventually returned to Alexandria, where he spent his final years in relative peace. One could humorously observe that he was something of an ecclesiastical “boomerang” — just when his opponents thought they’d gotten rid of him, he kept coming back.

He died in 373 C.E., having outlasted his Arian adversaries and leaving a profound legacy on Christian doctrine.

His steadfast defense of Nicene orthodoxy solidified his place as one of the great Church Fathers, with a reputation as a tireless and, some might say, relentless defender of what he perceived as the right interpretation of Christianity.

Athanasius: Major Works and Their Importance

Athanasius’ legacy as a prolific and influential writer can’t be overstated. Perhaps, the best illustration of this comes from an unexpected witness.

In The Penguin Dictionary of Saints, Donald Attwater and Catherine R. John remind us of the words that came from an 8th-century monk: “If you find a book by Athanasius and have no paper on which to copy it, write it on your shirts.” 

His works, ranging from theological treatises to biographical accounts and pastoral letters, became cornerstones of early Christian thought. Among these, several stand out for their lasting impact on both doctrine and Christian practice.

#1 – On the Incarnation

In this text, Athanasius lays out a clear and compelling argument for the necessity of the Word becoming flesh. He emphasizes that only through the Incarnation could humanity be redeemed from sin and corruption.

He writes:

Athanasus’ argument wasn’t merely theological but also practical, addressing the concerns of a divided Church facing the growing influence of Arianism — a theological doctrine named after the Alexandrian priest Arius, who argued that Christ, as the Son of God, was a created being and not co-eternal with the Father. 

The refutation of Arius’ teachings is perhaps most vivid in a series of works known as Four Discourses Against the Arians. 

#2 – Four Discourses Against the Arians

In these writings, Athanasius engaged with Arian claims that Christ, as the Son of God, was a created being rather than being of the same substance (Greek: homoousios) as God the Father. His orations make use of scriptural interpretation to argue in favor of the full divinity of Christ, a stance central to the Nicene Creed.

Weinandy explains that in his discourses against the Arians, Athanasius stresses a key distinction between creatures and the Son. 

Creatures are made and differ in essence (Greek: ousia) from the Father. However, the Son, as the Word and Wisdom of the Father, is not external to Him. Unlike creatures, the Son doesn’t differ in kind or essence from the Father but is “the proper offspring of the Father’s ousia.” As a result, Athanasius argues, the Son isn’t foreign to the Father’s essence but is proper to it.

Finally, this work undoubtedly reflects the intellectual exchanges happening within the Church of that time and offers a perspective that sought to counter the Arian interpretation of Christ's relationship to God.

#3 – The Life of St. Anthony

Another of Athanasius’ major works is The Life of St. Anthony, a “biographical” account of the famed Egyptian monk who became the father of Christian monasticism. 

Written around 360 C.E., this text isn’t a biography in a modern sense but, first and foremost, an idealized (highly subjective) portrait of what Athanasius saw as the monastic virtue, intended to inspire Christians to embrace the “right” or “orthodox” form of asceticism. The Church, as you can see, continued its focus on the development and protection of “orthodoxy” against all those perceived as enemies. 

To “Bible nerds”, the name of St. Athanasius is perhaps best known for his role in shaping the New Testament canon. As you probably know, the New Testament didn’t just fall out of the sky. Rather, its formation was a process that took centuries, with debates about which books should be included or excluded continuing even after the 4th century.

But here’s a fun fact: Athanasius is our earliest witness to the complete list of the 27 books that we now recognize as the New Testament. In his 39th Festal Letter (written in 367 CE), he laid out the books that should be considered authoritative Scripture, giving us the first official mention of the canon that has become so familiar today.

Athanasius clearly wasn’t thrilled with some of the reading choices floating around at the time and was determined to put an end to the debate — at least within the Egyptian Church! 

So, next time you flip through the pages of your New Testament, you can thank Athanasius for helping to cement which books made it and which didn’t. Or, if you’re not entirely satisfied with the final product, well, you know who to blame!

Athanasius depicted Anthony as a man who renounced wealth and the comforts of society to live a life devoted entirely to God in the Egyptian desert. Furthermore, the good bishop also portrayed Anthony as a fierce enemy of Arianism which shouldn’t surprise us. After all, ancient “biographies” often reveal more about their authors than their subjects. 

Additionally, this work is particularly notable for its role in the development and spread of Christian monastic traditions. 

Daniel F. Caner rightly points out that "the single most important step toward the standardization of monastic practice was its identification, early on, with physical isolation, and with the Egyptian desert in particular; and no doubt the main reason for that was the rapid dissemination of a single text, namely the Life of Antony [italics added].”

Finally, Athanasius' portrayal of Anthony as a spiritual warrior who conquered demons through prayer and fasting became an archetype for future generations of monks. The text was translated into several languages and inspired countless readers, including St. Augustine, whose conversion came, among other things, as a result of hearing stories of Anthony’s life. 

#4 – Letters and Theological Correspondence

In addition to his treatises and biographical writings, Athanasius was a prolific letter writer. His correspondence was wide-ranging, addressing both pastoral concerns and theological debates.

Perhaps the most famous examples are the Festal Letters, sent annually to mark the beginning of the Easter season. In them, Athanasius not only provided pastoral guidance but also used them as an opportunity to reinforce Nicene orthodoxy in the face of ongoing Arian challenges.

In her book Athanase d’Alexandrie et l’Église d’Égypte au IVe siècle (Athanasius of Alexandria and the Egyptian Church in the 4th century) Annick Martin notes: 

Beyond the Festal Letters, Athanasius' Letters to Serapion are critical for their defense of the divinity of the Holy Spirit. Written amid the Arian controversy, these letters helped to solidify Trinitarian doctrine by insisting that the Holy Spirit, like the Son, is fully divine and consubstantial with the Father.

St. Athanasius: Historical Significance

When bishop Gregory of Nazianzus (329-390) wrote that Athanasius “reconciled” ascetic Christians with the institutional Church, he highlighted what contemporary scholars such as David Brakke have explored in detail. 

The rise of Christian monasticism can’t be traced to a single cause or moment; rather, it was a confluence of preexisting ascetic traditions that emphasized the spiritual over the material world.

However, by the 4th century, the “orthodox” Church began to recognize the potential of this growing social and religious movement. Among the most successful figures in integrating monasticism into the broader Church structure was undoubtedly Athanasius.

Like a skillful politician, he engaged with the monks, wrote letters, offered guidance, issued strategic directives, and articulated a vision of the Church that included bishops, monks, and laypeople. 

As Brakke observes, Athanasius' ultimate goal remained consistent: To connect ascetic Christians with the emerging "orthodox" Church while distancing them from dangerous heretical movements.

By integrating monastic life into the ecclesiastical framework, Athanasius ensured that monks wouldn’t only participate in the spiritual life but also serve as leaders within the institutional Church that was in the process of shaping its major doctrines (e.g. the Council of Nicaea). 

In his essay “Bishops and Charismatics in Early Christian Egypt,” Norman Russell rightly points out that the “integration of the monastic life into the general life of the Church became for him [Athanasius] a key element of his search for doctrinal unity.”

To put it more bluntly, Athanasius understood that monasticism could be a powerful force for upholding orthodoxy, especially in the face of heterodox pressures such as Arianism.

Another area where Athanasius' influence is particularly visible is in his efforts to preserve doctrinal unity within the “orthodox” Church. While his battle against Arianism is well known and already mentioned, Athanasius also worked tirelessly to ensure that the theological and liturgical practices of the Church were consistent across regions. 

His emphasis on maintaining a unified understanding of the nature of Christ, the Trinity, and the role of the Church was instrumental in preventing further fragmentation within the early Christian community, which is not to say that intra-Church debates and controversies didn’t continue after his death. 

Finally, Athanasius' impact on Christian liturgical practices should be noted. His Festal Letters, in which he provided guidance on the observance of Easter and other key feasts, helped standardize Christian liturgical life across Egypt.

All of this wouldn’t have been possible without a serious engagement on Athanasius’ part. Annick Martin reminds us that St. Athanasius was the first bishop of Alexandria to visit every diocese during the first six years of his episcopate. Even modern politicians know that getting out there and meeting people is one of the best ways to win them over — Athanasius, it seems, was well ahead of the curve!

Conclusion

So, who is Athanasius, and what significance does he have in the history of Christianity? Athanasius of Alexandria remains a pivotal figure in Christian history, not only for his theological contributions but also for his ability to navigate the complex social and religious dynamics of his time.

His unwavering commitment to Nicene orthodoxy, his role in integrating monasticism into the life of the Church, and his influence on the establishment of liturgical practices all demonstrate Athanasius’ lasting impact on the development of Christian doctrine and ecclesiastical structure.

Through his writings, pastoral efforts, and leadership, Athanasius played a central role in shaping the contours of what would become the "orthodox" Church, bridging theological divides and consolidating key aspects of Christian belief.

Though Athanasius faced significant opposition, including multiple exiles, his legacy endures in the works he left behind and the doctrinal foundations he helped establish.

I often get asked if the wealth that, to paraphrase the great Peter Brown, was “waiting in the wings” and entered the “orthodox” Church in the 4th century ultimately corrupted it beyond recognition. To frame it that way, however, is to fall into a simplistic understanding of what was a much more complex issue.

One of the things that this influx of wealth and power also brought was the arrival of highly capable, intellectually astute individuals such as Athanasius, whose contributions not only left a remarkable imprint on the Church but also on the broader society of his time.